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I am fortunate to experience this scene on a regular basis here in Gardiner, our town that sits on the edge of Yellowstone, right at the confluence of the Yellowstone and the Gardner rivers (The river and the town are named after the same person, but a southern drawl led to the additional ‘i’ in the town’s name). My significant other and I come to the river often. He is an excellent angler, but I have not quite learned to fly fish myself. I’d much rather find an aforementioned sit spot and observe the world around me. Spring is an exciting time when so many familiar sights return to Yellowstone. Among returning migratory birds and first blooms of long dormant plants, I especially appreciate the insect life around me. There can be so much biodiversity in a single spot if you look close enough!

I notice a few things right away. The first, unfortunately, is a mosquito, probably freshly emerged from its underwater nymph stage in a beaver-dammed section of the river a bit upstream. As pesky as these insects are, they play a vital role in the ecosystem. That, however, does not stop me from slapping away! I feel something on my leg and go to smack it, but this time I’m pleasantly surprised to find a caddisfly instead of a mosquito. I tell my partner about this observation, he stops to change his fly, and lands a trout on the next cast! The art of fly fishing has to include the science of entomology, and a good angler will pay attention to what’s emerging and flying around. That’s fish food!

There are several types of insects that begin life in a freshwater habitat. Some examples include mayflies (Ephemeroptera), dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata), stoneflies (Plecotera), and of course caddisflies (Trichoptera). All of the above start as an egg, then hatch into their immature stage, known as ‘nymphs.’ These insects, plus several other aquatic species, are good indicators of a healthy waterway.

Mayflies are the only insect to have a winged immature stage. Entomologists call that the ‘subimago’ phase, and anglers know them as ‘duns.’ The final molt brings them to the sexually mature ‘imago’ phase, or ‘spinners’ to anglers. These adults only live a few hours to a few days, hence the ephemeral nature of their order name (Ephemeroptera).

The nymphs of the Odonata order are also worth mentioning. These prehistoric creatures breathe through their butts and are predatory from the day they hatch. Their mouth part (known as the labium) is retractable, and they punch it out to snatch other insect nymphs and even small fish and tadpoles. Imagine a miniature and aquatic version of the terrifying xenomorph from Alien.

Stoneflies are another angler favorite, specifically the famous Salmon fly. These gentle giants (relatively speaking) can grow up to 3 inches long and have only vestigial mouthparts as adults. They do all their eating in the nymph stage, and so once they emerge from the water, they mainly focus on adult activities (mating). I look forward to seeing these monsters in a couple weeks.

Last but certainly not least, are the caddisflies. These are remarkable insects, and their underwater life is beautiful. They create protective cases to live in, and use whatever materials are available to them, including small rocks, twigs, grass, and even an occasional snail shell! From my sit spot, I can see a few larger caddisfly nymphs scooting along the bottom of the eddy, and I hear a big splash downstream. Another fish on the line! Not only are these aquatic insects a favorite food for trout, but they also provide an important food source for many other riparian species like bats, dragonflies, birds, spiders and more. I was happy to see some caddis this past weekend, for the famous ‘Mother’s Day Hatch,’ even though we didn’t have the clearest water for fishing. Some years there are so many caddisflies in the air that it almost seems as if it is raining insects!

As the days warm up, I anticipate more river time in my future appreciating the life teeming above and below the waterline. Even if most people don’t appreciate the ‘bugs’ like I do, they are still an important part of our ecosystem, not only as a food source but also for the role they play in decomposition and nutrient cycling. The presence of these insects indicates a healthy body of water, as many are sensitive to pollution, and don’t necessarily have the means to migrate to cleaner waters. Thankfully here in Yellowstone we have pristine waterways and lots of critters to find. The Yellowstone Forever Institute educators especially enjoy taking students to participate in stream ecology activities. In addition to collecting samples from a stream and recording the number of species present, we also measure the water’s temperature, pH, and flow rate. After all critters are safely deposited back into the water, this data is saved to Yellowstone Forever’s phenology log. By understanding and protecting these small yet significant creatures, we can ensure the sustainability and resilience of Yellowstone’s wetlands for future generations.

by Katy Fast, Yellowstone Forever Institute 

Photos Top to Bottom:

Yellowstone River at sunset, NPS / Jacob W. Frank
Caddisfly, NPS / Jacob W. Frank
Damselfly larvae, NPS / Jacob W. Frank

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​​​​​​Yellowstone Under the Big Sky
Date: Saturday, June 28, 2025
Time: 4:00 PM – 9:00 PM
Location: One&Only Moonlight Basin, The Landing at Sky Lodge
Registration: Register Here
RSVP by: June 1, 2025

Event Highlights:

• Handcrafted hor’dourves & signature cocktails
• Exclusive live & silent auctions
• Live music by renowned country artist Stephanie Quayle

All proceeds will directly support Yellowstone National Park, ensuring its protection and preservation for generations to come.

Set against the stunning backdrop of Moonlight Basin, this exclusive gathering will bring together like-minded community leaders and Yellowstone enthusiasts for a night of shared commitment to protecting and preserving the park’s extraordinary landscapes and wildlife for generations to come.

We look forward to celebrating Yellowstone with you!

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One of the earliest signs of spring is the easiest to miss. To the hasty eye it might look like dirty snow. A second glance reveals black dots, crawling, in the thousands. They fill footprints in the snow and cover snowbanks like sprinklings of pepper Closer inspection sends many springing away in powerful leaps. Those that remain crawl on six tiny legs, their black exoskeletons just 1.5mm long. They are Snow fleas, a common creature that is rarely seen except in late winter when these critical decomposers congregate in view on melting snow.

Snow fleas are not actually fleas. They are not even insects. They belong to a class of wingless arthropods known as Collembola. Collembola, more commonly referred to as springtails, were originally classified as insects, but with internal mouthparts and morphology that more closely resembles crustations, Collembola now merit their own class under the subphylum Hexapoda. There are a few different species commonly called Snow fleas belonging to the Hypoigastruridae family. Both common names refer to their furcula, a ‘little fork’ appendage in latin, that tucks beneath their abdomen. The furcula is literally spring loaded with a mechanical advantage. As it snaps open it propels the Snow fleas several inches – or several dozen times their body length – through the air toward new habitat or away from predators, similar to how true fleas jump hosts using their back legs.

Snow fleas are small and easy to miss, but their ecological shadow looms large. Springtails are one of the most abundant macroscopic animals on the planet, accounting for an incredible amount of biomass despite their small body size. As decomposers, Snow fleas consume leaf litter, fungi, alge, and bacteria breaking down organic matter and recycling nutrients through the ecosystem. They also distribute spores from the various types of fungi that make up a healthy soil community. Their movements, digestive tracks, and even decomposing bodies provide this important ecosystem function. For example, the vast majority of plant life of earth survives through a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizial fungi. Mycorrhizial fungi extend plant root networks, helping their hosts absorb nutrients and water from the soil in exchange for carbon and sugars. When nitrogen – one of the three most important elements for plant growth – is low, these fungi first release pheromones to attract springtails and then toxins to paralyze them and ultimately break down their carcasses for this critical nutrient.

This recycling and redistribution of nutrients occurs year-round, generally with Snow fleas and other springtails hidden beneath the leaf litter and humus that covers forest floors. Gardeners might get a glimpse of Snow fleas as they shift through soil, but they are easy to miss. In late winter, however, Snow fleas congregate on top of the compressing snowpack, spreading out in search of new habitat and food, perhaps even feeding on the mold and bacteria that concentrates in partially melted snow. Similar to true insects, Snow fleas produce their own antifreeze: glycine-rich proteins that prevent ice crystals from forming inside their exoskeletons and causing damage. This allows them to survive and even thrive in the cold as their predators – beetles, ants, centipedes, mites, and others – are largely dormant.

As the snow melts, Snow fleas will fleas will return to the leaf litter to lay eggs and complete another season maintaining healthy soil. Their appearance in March is brief and subtle, but it heralds the burst of life that will soon come.

by Sam Archibald, Lead Field Educator

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In Yellowstone, we are fortunate to be home to two species of bears: grizzly bears and black bears. Grizzlies are found in only a few isolated regions in the lower 48 states—the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) and northwest Montana—while black bears have a wide range across the entirety of the United States. There are currently somewhere around 700 grizzlies in the GYE. Though an exact number is unknown, black bears are considered common in Yellowstone.

You can help protect the bears of Yellowstone

Sponsor a Bear Box

For most visitors, there is nothing quite like the excitement of seeing a bear in the wild. Many come to Yellowstone solely to see the park’s remarkable wildlife, and bears are often at the top of the list. While grizzly bears are typically much larger than black bears, they can at times be difficult to tell apart.

Whether we are talking about the distinct visual characteristics of the bears, or simply how to distinguish one track from another, we’ve put together some tips and stats to help identify both.

Courtesy of NPS

 

Grizzly Bear

NPS / Neal Herbert

Scientific Name: Ursus arctos

Color: Varies from black to blonde; frequently with white-tipped fur giving a grizzled, “silver-tipped” appearance. In the Yellowstone ecosystem, many grizzly bears have a light brown girth band.

Height: About 3-1/2 ft (1.0 m) at the shoulder.

Weight: Male: 216-717 lbs (98-325 kg); Female: 200-428 lbs (91-194 kg)

May live 15-30 years.

Quick identifier: Rump lower than shoulders.

 

Black Bear

NPS / Neal Herbert

Scientific Name: Ursus americanus

Color: Varies from pure black to brown, cinnamon, or blonde; in the Rocky Mountains, approximately 50% are black with a light brown muzzle

Height: About 3 ft (0.9 m) at the shoulder

Weight: Male: 210-315 lbs (95-143 kg); Female: 135-160 lbs (61-73 kg)

May live 15-30 years.

Quick identifier: Hump usually absent, rump higher than shoulders.

 

Bear Safety

• Give bears space. Keep at least 100 yards (93 meters) from bears at all times and never approach a bear to take a photo.
• Carry bear spray and know how to use it.
• Hike in groups and make noise. While hiking on a trail, periodically yell “Hey bear!” to alert bears of your presence.
• Do not travel in areas closed for bear management.
• Never feed bears.
• Stay with your stuff. Do not leave packs or bags containing food unattended, even for a few minutes, as bears learn new food sources quickly.
• If a bear approaches or touches your car, honk your horn and drive away. We want to discourage this behavior for the bears’ safety and yours.

 

Sources and resources

https://www.nps.gov/articles/bear-identification.htm

https://www.nps.gov/articles/yell-wildlife-bear-differences.htm

https://www.nps.gov/yell/learn/management/bear.htm

BOOK: Bears of North America by Stan Tekiela

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January. A time of cold somber mornings scraping ice from car windshields, days hunkered comfortably indoors or braving the snowy winds for a weekend ski, and cozy evenings by the wood stove. The aspen, willows, and cottonwoods are bare, the songbirds have largely left, and the bears, rodents, and reptiles slumber beneath the snow and dry dead grass. All is quiet.

As we settle into the depths of winter, it is often tempting to think of winter as a season of suspended dormancy. There’s an absence of light and warmth and even life. Many people – though certainly not all – count the days until the blooming warmth of spring. But our perspectives from heated apartments obscure the harsh reality most animals face. For northern temperate ecosystems like Yellowstone, winter is the most powerful force shaping the life, land, and ecosystems around us. It’s the season of survival and death. The conclusion for many species, be they old, sick, injured, or unfortunate enough to be caught in a late spring snowstorm or unusually deep freeze. Winter’s severity determines who can live here and who can’t. Harsh winters create barriers, preventing the spread of invasive species, pests, and pathogens.  Cumulative winters shape the genetic makeup (genotypes) and physical appearances and behaviors (phenotypes) of all who live here. On a landscape scale, winter snowpack determines what life will look like for the rest of the year. Approximately seventy percent of all the streamflow in Yellowstone comes from snowmelt; what happens during these quiet months echo throughout spring and summer.

Black bear at den site in the northern range, YF / Sam Archibald

Every species in Yellowstone has evolved to survive winter. Some species, like wolves, foxes, and otters thrive in the snow, benefiting from easier mobility and weakened or constrained prey. Other species like elk or coyote tolerate winter but often struggle, especially with any thaw-freeze events. Many avoid winter altogether. Most Yellowstone birds fly to warmer regions, sometimes travelling hundreds of miles. Mammals have fewer options, though long-legged ungulates can still migrate to lower elevations. Any form of migration is calorie-intensive and risky though. For less mobile animals, dormancy is often the solution. Many rodents hibernate, drastically lowering their body temperature, heart rate, and respiratory rate as their body shuts down to prevent losing too much heat to the ambient temperature. Reptiles brumate, grouping together and dropping their metabolism to extreme lows while retaining some cognition. Insects shift physics in their favor by voiding their bodies of any particles that might cause ice to form and using cryoprotectants like glucose or glycerol to lower their internal freezing point below 32° Fahrenheit. And some species like Boreal Chorus Frogs actually welcome ice. There’s no way to prevent freezing with permeable skin, but by pumping intracellular spaces full of glucose, these frogs can prevent damage while enduring winter frozen solid.

These various types of dormancies demonstrate the activity of passivity.  Each one is physically and physiologically complex. And fascinating. Take bears for example. Bears defy the easy dichotomy of dormancy. Like true hibernators, their heart and respiratory rates plummet down to around 8-19 heart beats with one breath per minute. Unlike true hibernators however, bears maintain a relatively high body temperature of around 91 degrees, only a few degrees lower than their standard temperature. And unlike rodents they don’t need to periodically rouse themselves to urinate, defecate, and sleep, though they are capable of waking within seconds if threatened. If humans were to try and sleep through the winter, we would quickly die of dehydration and a buildup of toxins. Urination is the body’s way of getting rid of urea and other waste or excesses. Bears have evolved to fully recycle their urea, converting it to usable protein. Beyond the problems of water and waste are the challenges of inactivity. Humans kept in bed all winter would quickly lose bone density and muscle mass due to inactivity and develop bed sores due to restricted blood flow. Worse yet, we would be highly vulnerable to heart attacks due to the hardening of arteries and extremely high cholesterol levels that come from burning fat for months. Bears experience none of that. They emerge from dens healthy and strong with muscle mass intact and only mild loss of body weight (15-30%) due to depleted fat reserves. Though it takes a few days for their metabolisms to ramp back up to normal levels, bears essentially emerge from the depths of winter ready to face a new breeding season.

That’s months away though. For now, the bears, rodents, reptiles, and others slumber – in some form or another – safely beneath the snow. They’re not awake, but they are actively fulfilling a marvelous life strategy that allows them to avoid Yellowstone’s harshest season. All is quiet.

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Bison  

YF / Matt Ludin

Yellowstone is the only place in the United States where bison have lived continuously since prehistoric times. While you can’t see a live dinosaur, you can see a herd of wild and woolly Yellowstone bison, and that’s almost just as good. Learn more

Geysers & Hot Springs

NPS / Dan Stahler

Having heard this statistic before doesn’t make it any less mind-blowing: Yellowstone has more geysers and hot springs than the rest of the world combined. We’ll probably never manage to see all 10,000 of these hissing, bubbling, colorful, or odd-smelling phenomena. But we can try! Learn more

Native American Culture and Heritage

For thousands of years prior to being established as a national park, Yellowstone was the home of—and is still culturally significant to—many Tribal Nations. Currently, 27 Tribes are recognized as having cultural association with the park. Yellowstone’s ethnographic resources are the natural and cultural features that are significant to Tribes. They include sites, plant and animal species, objects associated with routine or ceremonial activities, and migration routes.  Learn more

Old Faithful Inn

Photo: Yellowstone National Park Lodges

It has been called the world’s largest log cabin. While we can’t confirm that distinction, it is indeed magnificent! When you visit, it’s hard not to feel like a kid in your own giant, fantasy treehouse. Learn more

Grizzlies

NPS / Neal Herbert

Grizzly bears currently occupy only 2% of their historic range in the lower 48 states. We are thankful that Yellowstone provides habitat where this remarkable creature can endure. Learn more

Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone

YF / Matt Ludin

The canyon has inspired many artists, but the true artist is Mother Nature, having carved this extraordinary masterpiece with volcanic activity and water over the course of millennia. Learn more

Yellowstone Lake

NPS / Neal Herbert

Although we can’t witness the eruption of the Yellowstone volcano, we can see one of its byproducts. Yellowstone Lake is part of the caldera formed after the last major eruption 640,000 years ago. Today, we can enjoy boating, fishing, or just marveling at its 136 square miles of splendor. Learn more

Yellowstone Rangers

NPS / Jacob W. Frank

Those high-tech companies might have ping-pong tables, but if you want to meet someone with a true passion for their workplace, all you need to do is talk to a Yellowstone ranger. They are always happy to share their immense knowledge and enthusiasm for the park. Learn more

Trails

NPS / Jacob W. Frank

With more than 1,000 miles of trails, there is a hike to suit every taste. The only bad thing we can say is that it’s so very hard to choose which trail to take! Want some hiking ideas and inspiration? Learn more

Wolves

NPS / Jacob W. Frank

Since the wolves were reintroduced in 1995, Yellowstone is one of the best places worldwide to watch wolves in the wild. Today, the park provides the optimal place to research how this amazing predator affects many aspects of the ecosystem. The Yellowstone Wolf Project has been funded by Yellowstone Forever since 1996. Learn more

Bonus: YOU!

NPS / Jacob W. Frank

Yellowstone Forever’s members are true caretakers of the country’s first national park. Through their generous donations they fund projects that protect, preserve, and enhance Yellowstone for future generations such as wolf research, bison conservation, trail maintenance, visitor safety, and more! Learn more

Double Bonus: YF Staff & Volunteers

We could not accomplish all we do without our fantastic staff and volunteers across the park. The dedication and passion of our talented educators, fundraising professionals, retail and warehouse associates, campus volunteers, and beyond are vital to fulfilling Yellowstone Forever’s mission to protect and preserve Yellowstone for future generations. Thank you, team!

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